Assignment2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Assignment2 - Essay Example It would have been increasingly fitting if the reminder had a starting passage that delineated its motivation. An update ought not begin with a primary concern without a legitimate presentation. The utilization of language and selection of words is of basic significance in specialized correspondence. The update doesn't think about this. A significant number of the sentences use words that make it inconsiderate to the occupants (Anderson 34). It is prudent to ask individuals to submit to specific principles as opposed to telling them. Numerous occupants may feel fomented by the dangers in the notice and the inappropriate utilization of language. As featured over, each section merits an appropriate heading with the goal that correspondence might be all the more straight forward. The utilization of capital letters in a whole sentence is considered as shouting to the inhabitants, and is inappropriate to use in the update. In spite of the fact that the structure director practices a type of power, the correspondence style utilized ought to mirror his regard for the inhabitants. Regardless, the occupants are the clients and merit the most noteworthy thought. In this way, it is hasty to address them in a way that can be viewed as inconsiderate. It would have been increasingly suitable for the structure chief to feature the issues and make recommendations of potential arrangements. This would have convinced the occupants to adhere to the principles of tenure. Remarkably, the reminder should utilize logos with an end goal to persuade the inhabitants that they can accomplish more in guaranteeing an elevated level of usefulness in the square. In any case, the notice utilized poignancy in making dread in a considerable lot of the inhabitants, which isn't a compelling procedure. The update should leave a space for the inhabitants to give their recommendations on the new terms of tenure. It is basic to shoulder at the top of the priority list that there are terms and conditions that characterize the tenure understanding (49). Along these lines, presenting new standards ought not be a type of impulse to the inhabitants. What's more, it is ill-advised to

Organizing function of management

Sorting out capacity of the board Presentation The accomplishment of an association is reliant on the quality, practicality, and responsiveness of choices made by its pioneers. At the point when chiefs settle on powerful choices that react to the overarching difficulties, their association appreciate high intensity to their competitors.Advertising We will compose a custom research paper test on Organizing capacity of the executives explicitly for you for just $16.05 $11/page Learn More According to Sanchez Mahoney, 1996, administrative jobs can be arranged into four primary classes as arranging, sorting out, driving, and controlling/checking; proficient administrators can successfully consolidate the four components of the board to support their association. Sorting out capacity of the executives includes placing variables of creation into ideal use to achieve seriousness (Sanchez Mahoney, 1996). This paper examines the arranging capacity of the board. Sorting out capacity of the board According to Robey Sayles, 1994 , firms have human, data, physical, and money related assets; it is through the assets that they are required to make the most of market openings and alleviate any hazard related with the market. To oversee and make the most of winning business open doors just as alleviate against business dangers, assets should be overseen adequately. The executives have the job of authorizing arrangements and systems that ideally use their assets to increase the value of their clients; they have the errand of ideally overseeing assets and guaranteeing that most extreme addition has been gotten from them. Arranging capacity of the executives guarantees that exercises are ideally overseen; procedures and designation of variables of creation are figured out how to deliver anticipated outcomes. Associations ought to guarantee exercises are very much idea and facilitated for positive outcomes and relieve any business dangers (Robey Sayles, 1994). Van Fleet Bedeian, 1977, propose that pioneers inside an association have the job of setting up the correct channels through which their business procedures ought to follow to support their organizations. Adequately oversaw associations have their assets ideally used and all around intended to achieve high outcomes. When arranging the executives ought to be in the bleeding edge making systems that ought to be followed to accomplish the ideal outcome; contemporary business condition has various moves that should be fundamentally drawn nearer. To basically deal with issues, the board have the job of arranging their associations qualities to benefit stakeholders.Advertising Looking for inquire about paper on business financial aspects? How about we check whether we can support you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Organizing is a demonstration that outcomes to well facilitate exercises; the exercises are worked so that they will achieve certain ideal outcomes. In the contribution out investigation, chiefs have the job of guarant eeing the information sources they have placed in a procedure has given the ideal yield; if some shortfall have been noted, it ought to be the beginning purpose of cure (Van Bedeian, 1977). Association objectives, missions, and dreams must be achieved if the administration arranges forms adequately; this incorporates undertaking input-yield examination and undertaking various interior and outside condition investigation utilizing the board approaches like S.W.O.T. (qualities, shortcomings, openings, and dangers) investigation, P.E.S.T.L.E. (Political, social, Ecological, Technological, lawful, and natural) investigation, and utilizing watchmen five powers. Arranging appears as ceaseless procedure where the administration takes part in everyday exercises and investigates the correct technique or procedure to improve the exhibition of the procedures. At the point when procedures are embraced adequately and expected outcomes have been achieved; the executives ought not unwind and think they have accomplished the ideal procedure; they should target creating other better techniques for accomplishing their objectives and goals. Business intensity is achieved when an organization can authorize approaches that sort out their procedures and assets to accomplish low creation cost, improved worth, and increment HR inspiration. At the point when an organization can deliver assets at low costs, it can sell them at moderately low expenses than its rivals in this way making it progressively serious. Then again when esteem inside an association and its procedures is improved, clients are happy with the items they get from the framework. At the point when clients are happy with the yield of an organization, they create client dedication to the company’s items which is a serious apparatus. In spite of the fact that the three articles by Sanchez Mahoney, Van Fleet Bedeian, Robey Sayles, have accentuated the requirement for the board to settle on vital sorting out choices, all the three articles have disregarded the job that staffs/HR (subordinates) play in the arranging capacities. To successfully oversee assets, associations need the correct frameworks, and the correct representatives; the correct workers are the ones who can help the executives think of choices that are receptive to the association needs. In the event that administration settle on quality choices and they come up short on a structure through which the choice will be actualized, at that point the consequences of the quality choices won't be acceptable (Weygandt, Kimmel Kieso, 2009).Advertising We will compose a custom research paper test on Organizing capacity of the executives explicitly for you for just $16.05 $11/page Learn More Conclusion Managerial choices decide the degree at which corporate objectives and target will be achieved; one trait of powerful administrators is viable association. Supervisors are relied upon to they join human, psychical, and money related assets ide ally to accomplish wanted corporate outcomes. When undertaking the sorting out job, chiefs ought to be guided by mechanical tracks and attempt input-yield investigation to settle on the correct choices. References Robey,D., Sayles, C.A.(1994). Planning associations. Irwin: Burr Ridge. Sanchez,R., Mahoney,J.(1996). Particularity, adaptability and information the board in item and association structure. Key Management Journal, 17(1), 63-76. Van Fleet, D., Bedeian, A. (1977). A background marked by the range of the executives. Institute of the executives Review, 2(1), 356-375. Weygandt, J., Kimmel, P., Kieso, D. (2009). Administrative Accounting: Tools for Business Decision Making. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

Biloxi

Biloxi Biloxi biluk ´se [key], city (1990 pop. 46,319), Harrison co., SE Miss., on a peninsula between Biloxi Bay and Mississippi Sound, on the Gulf of Mexico; inc. as a town 1838, as a city 1896. Industries here include fishing and boatbuilding, the packing and shipping of shrimp and oysters, and several small manufactures. Beginning in 1990, casinos made Biloxi, long a beach resort, the center of a gambling boom district (which includes neighboring Gulfport ), with thousands of new hotel rooms. The French established the first European settlement in the lower Mississippi valley in 1699 across the bay at Old Biloxi (now Ocean Springs). New Biloxi, founded in 1719, was the capital of French Louisiana until 1722, when New Orleans replaced it. Hurricane Camille wrecked the city's waterfront in 1969, and Katrina caused even greater devastation in 2005. Keesler Air Force Base and Beauvoir (built 1852â€"54), the last home of Jefferson Davis , are here, as is Ohr-O'Keefe Museum of Art, de signed by Frank Gehry . Off the coast are the western islands of Gulf Islands National Seashore, including Ship Island, a Union fort during the Civil War. The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved. See more Encyclopedia articles on: U.S. Political Geography

The Rise Of The Papacy - 1473 Words

The Rise of the Papacy Introduction The birth or the beginnings of the Papacy is a rather difficult task to really nail down to a specific time, place or person and also the growth of the Papacy was a rather slow and gradual process. In this modern age Rome has been associated with the birth place of the Papacy but history shows that Constantine moved the capital of the Roman Empire to Constantinople in the 4th century. In Constantinople the father of the church was referred to as the Pope. The word Pope simply means â€Å"father,† and in early times was used to refer to any important and respected bishop. In Rome the father of the church was referred to as the Bishop of Rome. It is the purpose of this paper to present evidence of the individuals that gave rise to the Papacy in the centuries between the 6th and 9th. How and Why the Papacy in Rome became the Center of Power There are several contributing factors that prompted the rise of the Papacy during the time name mentioned above, but the one event that prompted this rise was the fall of the Roman Empire. When Rome was attacked by the Lombards, the Goths and the Huns it left a trail of destruction and uncertainty. Also during this time Christian heresies were running rampant throughout the state. The effort of Constantine and Roman Church leaders is when the Papacy really started to gain ground and the rise to power. As historical evidence has shown, Constantine relocated the capital of the Roman Empire to ConstantinopleShow MoreRelatedThe Rise Of The Papacy Essay947 Words   |  4 PagesThe Rise of the Papacy There many Roman Catholics worldwide, who looks up to the Pope’s authority. The great question is, what is the foundation of the Papacy? The rise of the papacy came at a very important time in history, after the fall of Rome. In 380 CE, Emperor Theodosius I, made Nicene Christianity the state church of the Roman Empire. After this establishment, and the church was the top religion in Rome, order was a must. The head of the church normally known as the bishop, now knownRead MoreThe Rise of the Papacy948 Words   |  4 PagesINTRODUCTION This paper will look into the primary reasons for the rise of the Roman papacy to power, and a few of the many things that aided the papacy in getting there. The fall of the Roman Empire is clearly a key factor in the rise of the papacy, so a look into the factors that caused the fall of the Roman Empire is essential. Secondly, a look into how the church positioned itself, to step into the vacuum of power left behind by the fall of the Roman Empire will prove to be needed. Lastly,Read MoreThe Rise of the Papacy Essay1637 Words   |  7 PagesCHHI-301-D10 LUO FALL2013 PAPER 2 The Rise of the Papacy INTRO In the void left by the collapse of the Roman Empire, the bishop of Rome grew even more in both power and prestige beginning in the sixth century and continuing to the reformation in the ninth century. It is the aim of this paper to explain how and why the papacy in Rome became the center of power of the medieval world, the factors contributing to this dominance over Western Europe, and the positive and negative ramificationsRead MoreTHE RISE OF THE PAPACY Essay examples1637 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction Early in history, the Roman papacy consolidated its power. It became one of the most influential organizations in the medieval period. This rise to power resulted from the decline in the Western Empire, the leadership of Roman bishops, and special grants that gave the church land holdings. This rise to power caused some positive ramifications, such as the protection of the church from heresy. However, the absolute power of the pope also caused corruption and abuses, many of which wouldRead MoreEssay about The Rise of the Papacy1770 Words   |  8 PagesThe Rise of the Papacy Barry Blankenship CHHI 301 - History of the Christian Church I Professor – Dr. Jeffrey S. Mayfield February 20, 2012 The Fall of A Great Empire and the Rise of the Papacy Before the fall of the Roman Empire you must stop and look at the power that was held within the millions of miles of land, building, people, cities, kings, and customs. The Roman Empire was not known for being just another city or empire but it was known for its strength, power and victoriesRead MoreThe Roman Empire And The Rise And Fall Of The Papacy1337 Words   |  6 Pagesin profound changes that demand a theological response. A candid but rational inquiry into the progress and establishment of Christianity may be considered a very essential part of the history of the Roman Empire and the rise and fall of the papacy. The history of the Papacy began over two thousand years ago with the reign of John Paul II. Peter, the humble fisherman of Galilee and an Apostle of Jesus Christ, became the figure head and the basis for the institution that has outlined not only theRead MoreThe Christian Era Of The Western Roman Empire1424 Words   |  6 Pagesthe full potential of the papacy was Leo the Great. In his two decades of servitude, he planted the seeds of Christian control to come over the next millennia in asserting the pope’s authority over other bishops by the power of the keys, granted by Jesus to Peter. In doing this Leo the Great positioned the pope as the sole arbiter in holy matters, establishing the position as that of enormous spiritual power. With the collapse of Roman authority in the West, the papacy found itself well positionedRead MoreChhi 301 Paper 21749 Words   |  7 PagesPAPER 2 Submitted to: Dr. Nickens Liberty University Online Lynchburg, VA by Richard M. Shouse June 17, 2013 Introduction: In response to the how and why the papacy in Rome became the center of power as it did. Shortly after the Fall of the Roman Empire there was a fight for power between several barbarian tribes like the Ostrogoth’s, Goths, Visigoths, Vandals, Saxons, Huns, Franks, Lombard’s, Burundians, and others. The two major tribes were the Ostrogoth’sRead MoreThe Fall Of The Roman Empire1216 Words   |  5 Pagesthe void left by the fall of Western Roman Empire. Several factors led to the papacy in Rome becoming the center of power. First, the church gained unsolicited popularity through the early relationships with the apostles. The office of the pope came from the apostle Peter who Christ gave authority in the church, a prominent leader and appointed as the guide for His people. Pope Damasus I, got the foundation for papacy based on the conversation between Peter and Jesus. Damasus belief in the apostolicRead MoreComparative Essay on Uniformitarianism and Catasophism1386 Words   |  6 PagesThe Rise of Papacy The rise of the papacy came at a time when the Roman Empire collapsed and there was chaos as it related to the bishops who held office in Rome and what religion would be at the forefront of the representation of the west or east of Rome since its demise. The term â€Å"papacy† (papatus), meant to distinguish the Roman bishop’s office from all bishoprics (episcopatus), and The Head of the Roman Catholic Church the pope is considered the successor of Peter and the vicar of Christ

Defining Excellence in Meno - 1998 Words

In Plato’s Meno, Socrates purposefully uses ignorance and irony to insufficiently define excellence for Meno. Initially, Meno argues a particular definition, which is a universally inconsistent proof, is sufficient to define excellence. However, Socrates asserts that the definition of excellence must be consistent and applicable to all individuals, by comparing individuals in a society to bees in a colony. Socrates demonstrates the failure of a particular proof to define all constituents of a group. In order to exemplify the errors of inconsistent and universally inapplicable definition, Socrates uses a universally inconsistent proof to erroneously assert a figure is not a shape. Socrates purposefully applies an inconsistent proof to†¦show more content†¦This assumption reflects a folly in Meno’s logic because his inquiry was into a single definition of excellence. Socrates ironically guides Meno by generating questions that relate to excellence as a universall y consistent value. Socrates inquires if â€Å"bees [are] all no different from one another, but the same?† (Meno, pg 100, ln 72b). By answering â€Å"yes†, Meno perpetuates Socrates’ use of irony. Socrates knows the definition of excellence, but he is going to make Meno arrive at a resolution by himself. Socrates coerces Meno to agree that a bee colony is defined by a universally consistent definition of excellence. Socrates continues his deliberate inquiry by asking Meno â€Å"do you think health is different in a man and a woman?† (Meno, pg 100, ln 72e). Once again, Meno considers Socrates’ inquiry and concludes that health must be equal for all human beings. Socratic irony compels the student to examine an argument and consider its validity. Meno agrees with Socrates that formerly individual entities, like human health and bees, can be defined by the same confines. Therefore, a distinct entity, like excellence in human beings, can be defined b y a consistent and universal definition. Excellence can be defined under a single proof applicable to all human characteristics because human health is not differentiable. As a result a result of Socratic irony, Meno should abandon distinct definitions of excellence and consider a universal definition. Socratic irony forces Meno to

Early Pregnancy Free Essays

In considering an article on â€Å"Early Pregnancy: Normal and Abnormal† for a monograph on ultrasound in reproductive medicine and infertility, several issues arise. It is essential that the sonologist or sonographer understand what early pregnancy looks like on transvaginal ultrasound and why it looks like that, so that one can distinguish early pregnancies that are normal from those absolutely destined to fail. Regardless of the level, if any, of assisted reproduction, the use of ultrasound in early pregnancy begins with basic physiology and anatomy. We will write a custom essay sample on Early Pregnancy or any similar topic only for you Order Now Most often, the patient with an issue of questionable fertility is well-known to the medical establishment, highly motivated, compliant, and usually follows any instruction offered. More often than not, the biochemical evidence of a pregnancy event (i. e. , detection of human chorionic gonadotropin in blood or urine) precedes our ability to see the pregnancy sonographically. In fact, the gap between biochemical detection (as early as 30 to 50 mIU/mL) often from over-the-counter home pregnancy tests and our ability to detect a pregnancy even with the sonomicroscopy of the vaginal probe has widened in the recent past. Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) is produced by trophoblastic tissue. It is detectable 8 days after conception. [1] Conventional over-the-counter home pregnancy tests turn positive at around the time of the missed menses (30 to 50 mIU/mL). It is often erroneously referred to as the â€Å"beta subunit† or simply the â€Å"beta† although most current tests measure the intact hCG molecule. The ? subunit was originally described to distinguish it from the ? subunit, something that is shared with other molecules such as thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH). Normally, hCG doubles every 48 hours, although a minimum rate of rise is 53 to 66%[2,3] in 48 hours. It is essential to realize that apparently normal doubling times of hCG do not ensure an intrauterine location, as 15 to 20% of ectopic pregnancies can follow normal doubling times of hCG, and these are ones that often end up with a beating heart and normal appearance, although extrauterine in location How to cite Early Pregnancy, Papers Early Pregnancy Free Essays The Internet ! Teenagers nowadays have so many problems. One of the most common problems is big occupation with the Internet. Teenagers use it every day but not in a good way. We will write a custom essay sample on Early Pregnancy or any similar topic only for you Order Now The fact is that we can’t imagine one day without the Internet, but children today use it for things which don’t have a good influence on them. For example , kids spend few hours every day playing computer games. They don’t learn anything good from it. Years ago children used to spend all of their free time to hang out with each other, but nowadays they spend all of it to chat online with their friends. That’s the worst thing with Internet. They spend their childhood with the ‘ peace of technology ‘ , not with real people. It would be the best if parents took care of their children and thought more what they do in their free time. They should restrict their time and in that way they could have more time for something that are important in their life. On the other side we need Internet for everything today. The bright side of the Internet is that we can get intouch with our cousins and friends form other countries by skype. Unsociable children Big problem of children nowadays is that they have problems with finding friends. It’s really hard for them to find someone who will understand and support them in every way. The Internet , that I’ve just written about has a big influence on their sociable life,so they’re often lonely and feel depressive all the time. They watch lots of movies that are not suitable for their age and they think it’s okay to do those things. Because they don’t have friends and feel depressive , they become aggressive and often don’t find their soulmates. Children don’t understand each other al all. There is too much bullying and misunderstanding in their lives. When someone doesn’t want to do something bad, like smoking cigarettes , or drinking alcohol , what is ‘normal’ nowadays in their age , that person for the rest of society is not normal or modern and than they reject him/her from their group. But , the only truth is that if you don’t do those bad things you stayed good unlike them. How to cite Early Pregnancy, Papers

Research Paper on The Evolution of Sexuality Essay Example

Research Paper on The Evolution of Sexuality Essay Introduction There are certain contentious topics in society – such as such as religion, politics, violence, and sexuality – which have always been at the center of a heated debate. They become even more contentious when represented artistically. There is a widespread notion that art should give rise to strong emotions in the observer; in other words, art should shock and provoke. While there is no universal agreement among artists and critics on this issue, perhaps majority of them would subscribe to the above statement. There is a famous saying by Vladimir Mayakovsky, a prominent Russian futurist, that art is not a mirror to reflect the world, but a hammer with which to shape it. The views on acceptability of sexuality in art have changed many times in human history. Sexuality and nudity have been talked about as anything from assault on public morality to the apogee of high culture (Smith, 1997). The topic of sexuality is intimately interconnected with a host of other socially significant issues, such as procreation, relations between a man and a woman, and, ultimately, gendered power. Therefore, changes in attitudes to artistic representation of sexuality merit scholarly attention. This research paper will explore these changes as they took place in visual art throughout history. Early Representations of Sexuality Exploring early representations of sexuality in pictorial art makes sense within two different traditions, namely the ancient (or classical) and Christian tradition. As Doran (2008) informs, â€Å"our primary sources for nudity in public art have been Greco-Roman mythology and Judeo-Christian traditions† (para. 1). Before looking into these two traditions, however, it is necessary to clarify the definition of the subject matter of this paper. Where to draw the line between nakedness and nudity has been the preoccupation of artists and critics for centuries, since it served as the basis for classification of art as high (and therefore acceptable, adored, and valued) or pornographic. We will write a custom essay sample on Research Paper on The Evolution of Sexuality specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Research Paper on The Evolution of Sexuality specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Research Paper on The Evolution of Sexuality specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Nakedness, i.e. absence of clothes on the figure that is being represented, can border on vulgarity; this is the case when an individual body is depicted. Indecent pictures of naked bodies which are meant for sexual arousal – the basic definition of pornography – always imply imagining a particular body, a body with which sexual intercourse is possible. On the other hand, nudity, as defined in classic art, is a portrayal of abstract, ideal human form, hence the widespread usage of transparent drapes, or draperie mouillee, which were added â€Å"to offset the form and contours of the figure† (Smith, 1997, p. 4). Another technique artists used to distinguish their work from pornography was to place a naked body in an appropriately general context: models were portrayed posing for the artist in his studio, which was deemed to be a desexualized activity serving the higher purpose of art. Depiction of naked or semi-naked figures was only acceptable â€Å"if the body was transformed into a formalized and generalized sign: the nude† (Smith, 1997, p. 7). Ancient Tradition Starting with the ancient tradition, it is necessary to note that public nudity was accepted in Greece whenever practical and appropriate, for instance, during dancing, working, or exercising, and this fact has found its reflection in the art of those times. As Papalas (cited in Goodson, 1991) notes, archaeologists have found many vases portraying naked performers at festivals and laborers in the fields. Moreover, ancient Greeks believed that humans should strive towards becoming God-like both in terms of physical and intellectual development, therefore they valued artistic portrayals of healthy and well-trained bodies, whether nude or not. The term â€Å"heroic nudity† was coined to refer to representations of naked semi-gods and heroes in sculpture and pictorial art. However, Hurwit (2007) argues that heroic nudity was only one among many approaches to portraying the naked in ancient Greece: there was also a nudity of differentiation, a nudity of youth, â€Å"democratic nud ity,† a nudity of status or class, and a nudity of vulnerability and defeat (pathetic nudity). Hurwit (2007) came to this conclusion after analyzing Dexileos stele, set above a cenotaph or heroon built for a young horseman killed in the Corinthian War, which depicts defeated enemy as naked, while the horseman has his clothing on. However, it is not always the case in the classical tradition that vanquished enemy is portrayed naked as a symbol of his impotency. Vernon (2001) draws attention to the fact that St. Sebastian, the Roman martyr shot with arrows, â€Å"is depicted without clothes to show his perfection in death – even at the risk of his image appearing homoerotic† (para. 7). Christian Tradition of Sexuality Christian art also deserves a close look in terms of prevalence of sexual themes and messages. However, deciphering those messages requires an in-depth knowledge of Christian theology and history of religion. This paper will only discuss several theories and examples of the nude in Christian visual art. For instance, Steinberg (1997) argues that deliberate exposure of baby Christ’s genitalia on numerous icons is an affirmation of the Lord’s son kinship with the human condition. Moreover, surrounding figures on many paintings attract the viewer’s attention to genitalia of Jesus by implicitly or explicitly pointing at them. As for artistic representations of Christ in adulthood, an important change has occurred in the 13th century under the influence of different theories of the original sin. Before those times, the prevailing mindset was that Adam and Eve were sexless at the beginning and endowed with procreative organs only after they sinned. Consequently, they became ashamed of their genitalia and covered themselves. Since Jesus was not subject to the original sin, he was frequently portrayed as a sexless being; absence of genitalia meant he did not have anything to be ashamed of. However, St. Augustine proposed that Adam and Eve were created with procreative organs, which were removed from their conscious control after they sinned. In this context, it is interesting to analyze why many depictions of crucified Jesus show him covered with loincloth yet with a clearly visible erection. Apart from the obvious association of the phallic symbol with power, there are two alternative explanations. In the pr e-Christian mythology, a link existed between erection and resurrection, therefore Jesus’ erect phallus can be seen as a premonition of what happens three days after. Portrayals of Jesus on the crucifix having an erection were â€Å"to show the potency of the new creation that is to be found in the Christ† (Vernon, 2001, para. 7). Another explanation is linked to the conception of the original sin introduced by St. Augustine. Adult Jesus has never been painting with an erection – it only happens either in infancy or after his death. Thus, Jesus’ being in full control of his member during the mature age points to him not being subject to the original sin (Steinberg, 1997). It is not only Jesus whose disrobed body is symbolic of power and virtue rather than shame and decay: Doran (2008) argues that â€Å"from specifically Christian scriptures and traditions, we are presented with the unclothed bodies of martyrs (like St. Bartholomew) and ascetics (like St. Jerome)† (para. 4). Here, we speak of a particular kind of power – moral power stemming from purity and martyrdom rather than actual power. For centuries, â€Å"the oppressed, the tyrannized, the unjustly treated have time and again identified with, and found strength to endure/resist, in portrayals of that naked God-man on the cross† (Doran, 2008, para. 8). It is important to qualify the above statement: it applies only to depictions of naked saints and Jesus himself. When mortals are portrayed nude, the painting acquires completely different connotations, those of downfall, suffering and awareness of one’s own imperfection. As Margaret Walters (1978) notes, â€Å"in Christian art, the naked body is a symbol not of pride but of pathos. To be naked is to be vulnerable, sexually self-conscious and guilty† (p. 66). It is also interesting to note that while portrayals of naked Jesus and other male saints were widespread, there are virtually no depictions of female nudity in Christian art. As Doran (2008) reminds, â€Å"when men do show up naked in Christian imagery, they have been known to facilitate spiritual and ethical ends† (para. 8). At the same time, few and far between depictions of females figures usually are with garments on. Doran (2008) concludes that â€Å"along with representations of a fully-clothed Mary (the mother of Jesus) portrayals of naked men dominate Christian art† (para. 2). The only exception is portrayal of Virgin Mary with her breasts uncovered during feeding of Jesus. It is possible to explain tolerance towards this theme by the appropriateness of the context in which Mary’s breasts are reveled and by her desexualization and elevation from the status of a woman (and thus potentially a sexual object) to mother. Renaissance and the Victorian Era Renaissance udity was a prominent theme in Renaissance art. Since religious influence was strong during that period, artists were guided by â€Å"the belief that the human form is the crowning achievement of God in Creation – worthy of our expert knowledge, and analogous to the scientific knowledge of the human body in medicine and biology† (Gordon College, 2010, â€Å"Rationale†, para. 1). However, it necessary to emphasize that the difference between nudity and nakedness discussed earlier was very important for painters of the period. Nudity was believed to be appropriate and devoid of sexual connotations only if nakedness was a natural condition of the figures represented. As a consequence, portrayal of naked female body was usually done in the form of a goddess, most frequently Venus. Renaissance art aimed at following in the footsteps of great masters of the past, especially Greek and Roman sculptors, therefore depiction of naked body was frequent in the art of that per iod. As Haber (2003) notes, â€Å"the discovery, way back in 1506, of Laocoon, the frenetic Roman statuary, had set a challenge to High Renaissance sculpture and an inspiration to Mannerism† (â€Å"Virtue and bare flesh†, para. 1). At the same time, the views of the Church on the appropriateness of nudity in art have changed dramatically. Nakedness was no longer associated with holiness and purity bur rather with earthy temptations and prurient thoughts. A campaign to cover private parts of Gods and heroes in classical sculptures and paintings of the past with a fig leaf started after â€Å"the Roman Catholic Church’s Council of Trent ordered public works to be amended to hide nudity in the 16th century† (Gargulinski, 2010, â€Å"Art†). The choice of the fig leaf was not incidental, since according to Biblical mythology, Adam and Eve used fig leaves to cover themselves after sinning and becoming aware and ashamed of their bodies: â€Å"And the eyes of them both were opened, and they knew that they were naked; and they sewed fig leaves together and made themselves aprons† (Genesis 3:7; cited in Gargulinski, 2010, â€Å"Bible†). Initially, some Greek and Roman sculptors used fig leaves to cover genitalia of their figures, while others did not, and the Church has done it instead. Later on, some fig leaves were removed, yet it was impossible to return some paintings and sculptures their original form without damaging them. Apart from fears about possible damage to artworks, there is another controversy associated with fig leaves which are removed upon excavation along with the grime, dirt and oils that have built up over the years. As Gargulinski (2010) informs, â€Å"while this renovates the works into their originally intended condition, it is also stirring up controversy among scholars who say the fig leaves are part of the works’ histories† (â€Å"Controversy†). The Church’s crusade against nudity in art was connected to the fact that during Renaissance times, a great portion of artworks were commissioned by the Church and were meant for display in places of religious observance. Fears have arisen about presence of nudity in such places, given â€Å"not just that the faithful might be disturbed in their worship, but that certain individuals might actually recognise a beautiful angel in a fresco as that young model who lived around the corner† (Vernon, 2001, para. 2). The Victorian Age During the Victorian age, attitudes to permissibility of painting nude body were ambivalent at best. Even the most fervent defenders of morality acknowledged that human body was the perfect form which was to be represented in high art. As Smith (1997) writes, â€Å"on one hand, the nude embodied the ideal, the highest point of pictorial artist’s practice; on the other, it was viewed as an active incitement to unregulated sexual activity† (pp. 1-2). Several periods can be distinguished in the history of the Victorian England according to their attitudes to the nude: early experimentation with nudity in pictorial art lasted till the 1850s, after which a decline occurred, yet artistic interest to the naked figure resurged dramatically in the 1860s and attracted a wave of indignation from some members of the public. The resurgence occurred under the influence of French Salon painting; moreover, some artists with an interest in depicting the nude were claiming to follow in the footsteps of the Old Masters of the Renaissance period. It was roughly around that time that a link between portrayals of nudity and artistic excellence was established. Human body was regarded as one of the most sophisticated natural objects, and artists capable of rendering it in a realistic manner were thought of as able to draw or sculpt anything. It was frequently the case that painters depicted the naked figure in a way that the figure’s hands or other body parts covered genitalia. It is also necessary to note that depiction of women’s breasts was considered more acceptable in the academic art of the period than portrayal of male or female genitalia. Naked female body in general was considered more appropriate than male during the Renaissance and Victorian periods. However, many figures – especially female figures – were depicted from the back to prevent exposure. As Kenneth Clark (1972) writes his classic work The Nude: A Study in Ideal Form, â€Å"it might be argued that the back view of the female body is more satisfactory than the front† (p. 150). Nudity of children was more accepted than representations of adults without clothing. Recalling the discussion of sin and shame in the section on early representations of sexuality in religious art, it should hardly elicit surprise. Since nakedness was considered inappropriate only if associated with feelings of shame stemming from awareness of gender-specific peculiarities of one’s body, children were believed to be ignorant of potential sexual implications of their nakedness, they were still in the state of blessed innocence, and many artists felt free to depict child nudity even when they did not dare paint naked adult figures. Child nudity or desexualized nakedness of female figures was meant to point to purity and morality rather than promiscuity: the nude â€Å"offers scenes of the model in the studio, emblem of art’s cool eye in search of perfection – and hands-off respect for a woman’s virtue† (Haber, 2003, â€Å"The gloves are off†, para. 3). The fact that nudity was associated with morality in the Victorian era can be explained by one important factor, the primacy of the visual. Galleries’ attendees could only gaze at naked figures in sculpture and on canvas, while touch as another sense for experiencing human body was ruled out by the entire situation. The primacy of the visual originates from the fact that first Renaissance artists and then their Victorian followers have been inspired by classical Greek and Roman sculpture. Materials sculptors were working with, marble and rock, were discouraging touching; they were pleasing visually but repulsively cold when pressed against the body surface (Haber, 2003). As a consequence, the dissociation of art from touch was commonly accepted well into the 20th century, and therefore it allowed for greater freedom in acceptable representations of nudity. Referring back to the difference between the nude and naked, the appropriate and pornographic, it is necessary to specify that the above discussion applies only to the so-called high art, which emphasized abstract representation of the undressed figure. At the same time, there existed many pictures of less innocent character for private display and consumption during both Renaissance and Victorian era; however, they were banished from the public arena because of their provocative nature (Smith, 1997). Sexuality in Avant-Garde and Contemporary Art Modernism has challenged established conventions of academic art and broadened the conception of what is acceptable both in art and the public sphere in general. As Rimanelli (2005) informs, â€Å"it has often been asserted that Modernism begins with Manet, in particular with those paintings wherein the vexations of the unclothed female body burst forth with a power of disquietude that appalled the public: Le Dejeuner sur l’herbe (1863) and Olympia (1863)† (para. 1). Other avant-garde artistic movements that emerged in the 19th and 20th centuries were equally preoccupied with liberation of art and life from oppressive traditions and morals. Walters (1978) comments on expressionist views on naked figure in the following way: â€Å"The Expressionists often saw themselves as free spirits, getting back to nature, back to more instinctive levels of the personality. They would, by main force if necessary, break down bourgeois hypocrisy and sexual repression. And the image which proved their freedom from convention, their artistic and sexual virility, was the female nude† (p. 315). The portrayal of both female and male nude received special attention after the sexual revolution of the 1960s, when artists started to look for new ways of experiencing and expressing sexuality. One of the major developments was the tendency among female artists to paint naked figures of their own or opposite gender. For centuries, painting nude was deemed inappropriate for females, despite the fact that several talented and successful women dared paint disrobed bodies in the 19th and early 20th century (Walters, 1978). It has been mentioned before that female nudity was accepted more than male in all traditions except for the Christian one. It has also been established in the introductory section of this paper that studying representations of nudity and sexuality is important in light of their role for power relations between genders. In the decades following the 1960s, female artists often depicted naked male body provocatively and programmatically. Walters (1978) cites the examples of Anita Steckel who formed the Fight Censorship group in 1973 â€Å"protesting the double standard of museum authorities, only allowing the male nude if decently fig-leafed, while the most blatantly sexual female nude is considered permissible art† (p. 316) and Marion Pinto who called one of her exhibitions â€Å"Man as Sex Object†. Sexuality Case Studies This section will discuss two works of art which caused heated discussion about representation of sexuality in art in their respective times. Because of crossing the line between nudity and nakedness, the paintings discussed below attracted indignation from art critics and the public when they appeared. The paintings discussed in this section will be Manet’s Olympia and Courbet’s Origin of the World.It has been mentioned above that Manet’s paintings are sometimes regarded as marking the beginning of modernity, and nakedness of the artist’s models is one of the major reasons for that. Manet’s â€Å"women fail to sustain the idealisation of the nude, slipping decisively into the embarrassing (for some) terrain of the naked† (Rimanelli, 2005, para. 1). Although the source of Olympia was a classical one, i.e. Titian’s The Venus of Urbino (1538), Manet’s Olympia is distinctly modern and disturbingly naked, stripped of the academic ve neer of classical nudity. T.J. Clark (1984) writes in the chapter of his The Painting of Modern Life: Paris in the Art of Manet and His Followers titled Olympia’s Choice that â€Å"the past was travestied in Olympia: it was subject to a kind of degenerate simian imitation, in which the nude was stripped of its last feminine qualities, its fleshiness, its very humanity, and left as ‘une forme quelconque’- a rubber-covered gorilla flexing its hand above its crotch† (cited in Rimanelli, 2005, para. 2). Before modernism, nudity was considered acceptable only if depersonalized and in a number of particular contexts. Contrary to the acceptable academic nude, Manet’s Olympia â€Å"is a portrait of an individual, whose interesting but sharply characteristic body is placed exactly where one would expect to find it† (Clark, 1972, p. 164). Olympia is placed in a brothel, where viewers would expect to see naked female form in the inappropriate context of paid sex. Courbet’s Origin of the World is even more provocative: a close-up view of female genitalia, with the rest of the woman’s body out of picture, made critics of the day dismiss the painting as a brutal objectification of female figure and therefore as pornographic. The painting was originally planned to be of erotic nature, since it was commissioned by Khalil Bey, a former ambassador and negotiator of the Ottoman Empire retired to Paris, who already owned other Courbet’s works by provocative nature, such as The Turkish Bath and The Sleepers. It look several decades before the artistic and philosophical significance of the painting was acknowledged. Conclusion In Christian art, Jesus and saints were often depicted disrobed to attest that they were not subject to the original sin and therefore unaware of potential sexual implications of their nakedness. While portrayals of unclothes male figures were common, female nudity was less accepted in Christian art, except for the scenes where Virgin Mary is breast-feeding baby Jesus. The situation was reversed in the Renaissance era, when great masters paid a lot of attention to the study and portrayal of the nude. Usually, it was a male artist portraying a female model; however, an important distinction existed between academic nudity and nakedness. It was deemed appropriate to represent figures without clothes only if absence of garments was a natural condition for them, like for Greek and Roman gods and heroes, for examples. Therefore, most nude sculptures and paintings of the period represent nude female form as a goddess. Another distinction between nudity and nakedness originated from the context in which nakedness occurred. If a model was passively posing for an artist in his studio, such nudity was regarded as serving the higher purpose of art. If a naked woman was places in a brothel, like in the case with Manet’s Olympia, such a painting was deemed inappropriate by contemporaries. However, avant-garde artists used nakedness extensively to shock a nd provoke their public. A resurgence of the nude in visual art happened after the sexual revolution of the 1960s, and one of the prominent trends of the subsequent decades was portrayal of naked male body by female artists in an attempt to correct for centuries of unbalanced relations between genders. Bibliography